２７ M-Theory 【What is the Universe？】Dialogue with the Universe[Electromagnetic force + Weak interaction＋Strong interaction ＋ Gravity]1995 Edward Witten○Hypothesis theory of 11-dimensional (spatial dimension is 10, one time dimension) comprehensive the five superstring theory that is currently known.○In M-theory membrane of two-dimensional or 5-dimensional is considered as a component.○While it is theoretically to be unified to represent the four force electromagnetic force, gravity, weak force, gravity in one form, this theory is the stage of mathematical hypothesis. ・・・We do not know how to quantize the membrane. Therefore, analysis of M theory is often done using eleven-dimensional supergravity theory which is low energy effective theory. [1]○The M in M-theory can stand for "magic", "mystery", or "matrix" according to taste, and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known.
※A schematic illustration of the relationship between M-theory, the five superstring theories, and eleven-dimensional supergravity. [1]○In this theory, only gravitational field (graviton field) , gravitino field and another field are available.【参 照】1. M-Theory – Wikipedia【Change log】2017-416 Add a schematic illustration
２７ Ｍ理論 【宇宙とは】宇宙との対話[電磁気力＋弱い力＋強い力＋重力]1995 Edward Witten○現在知られている５つの超弦理論を総合する１１次元（空間次元が１０個、時間次元が１個）の仮説理論。○２次元や５次元の膜が構成要素と考えられている。○電磁気力、重力、弱い力、重力の四つの力を一つの形で表して統一しようとする理論であるが、数学的な仮説の段階。・・・膜を量子化する方法が分かっていない。従って、Ｍ理論の解析は低エネルギー有効理論である超重力理論を用いて行われることが多い。[1]○Ｍは、マジック(Magic)、ミステリー(Mystery)、メンブレーン（membrane;膜、超弦理論における「ひも」の構成要素）など、その人の好きなものを意味する。※M理論、5つのスーパーストリング理論、および11次元超重力の関係の模式図 [2]○この理論に登場する場は重力場（グラビトン場）・グラビティーノ場・3形式場のみ。[3]【参 照】1. 今村洋介”11次元超重力理論とMブレーン” 20110415http://www.th.phys.titech.ac.jp/~imamura/note/m-kiso.pdf2. M-theory - Wikipedia3. M理論 - Wikipedia【更新履歴】20170416 模式図の追加
２６ Superstring Theory：a Theory of Quantum Gravity 【What is the Universe？】Dialogue with the Universe[Electromagnetic force + Weak interaction＋Strong interaction ＋ Gravity]○The phenomenon and force in the microscopic world is can be explained by the quantum theory, and macroscopic gravity phenomenon is can be explained by the general theory of relativity.○Since 1980, scientists around the world are working on the development of the superstring theory that unifies general theory of relativity and the quantum theory, and that theory can be explained from the microscopic to the macroscopic world.○Quantum theory has poor compatibility with gravity, would have obtained a result of the contradiction to be fitting the quantum theory to gravity. Superstring theory is expected as candidates for the theory that can be understood gravity in the framework of the quantum theory.○For example, if the (early) size of the universe is as small as a point, the energy becomes infinite. The point of this energy infinity is the singularity.○In the singularity the space-time disappears, and all of the physical law does not hold.○If the particle is made of a string as shown by the string theory, the singularity does not come out.○The superstring theory can handle gravity like the other three forces by representing the elementary particles as vibrations of the strings.※In quantum scale, basic strings have become closed loope. Althoug the strings have various excited states, in one of such excited states, there is one with the nature of graviton(:particle that mediate gravity). [1]
※Open string and closed string [2]○In addition, the theory is possible to combine fermions and bosons together by thinking of super symmetry.○However, considering that there is super-symmetry, it is necessary to assume the partner particles obtained by inverting particles and antiparticles, as a result, the number of particles are more than 100 kinds. Moreover, the space is a 10 dimensional.※When trying to describe various particles uniformly, it becomes a theory of high dimension and supersymmetry. And with supersymmetry, there is only 11 –dimensional theory at maximum.○Spatial dimension of 5-10（Extra Dimension：Calabi–Yau manifold） are folded into very fine "Planck distance" (10^-35 m) of magnitude. Various properties of elementary particles come out from there.※Since there is no dimension of time in the extra 6-dimensional part of the string theory, the Euclidean space is bent and the gauge symmetry is naturally generated.※Extra Dimension：Calabi–Yau manifold [3]
※Gauge symmetry: If there is a common physical law between the physical law of a certain world and the physical law of another world, a conversion rule of rulers is required. The fact that the physical law is established with this measure (gauge) conversion rule is called "gauge symmetry".○By using string theory, we can calculate the entropy of black hole, Hawking radiation and so on. [4]○From the size of a "string" which this theory assumes being very small(10^－35m) etc., the superstring theory has not acquired the status as an established theory of physics.○In addition, not only a string but also a membrane structure called D-brane has appeared.※D-brane：The origin of 'D' comes from where open strings have the Dirichlet boundary condition on this membrane.＜Multiverse (Multi-Universe)＞[1] [5][6]・Superstring theory suggests that the Big Bang there was many times. In other words, the universe is not one. It will be that the universe is multi and there are parallel universes. • In the parallel universe, the laws of physics are different, but superstring theory's seems applicable.○Problems・There is no experimental evidence to date that confirms string theory's predictions of supersymmetry and Kaluza–Klein extra dimensions.・The goal of the superstring theory is that it leads to observable predictions.○Digression• About 1,000 people understand string theory in the world!【References】1. A Universe from Nothing. Lawrence M. Krauss -20122. “超弦理論とブレーン世界”at ILCの物理（Japanese）3. String theory - Wikipedia4.Black hole thermodynamics - Wikipedia5. Michio Kaku / New York incandescent classroom "Dream of Einstein " 201504036. Ｎｏ．２９－１－１ Superstring theory and Brane cosmology7. Loop Quantum Gravity - Wikipedia【Change log】20170401 Attach figure of strings20170409 Attach figure of Extra Dimension and Digression
２５ Higgs field and Higgs Boson 【What is the Universe？】Dialogue with the Universe
２５－１ Higgs field and mass
○The Higgs field is an energy field that is thought to exist everywhere in the universe. [1]
○In Higgs field, particles(except photon, require energy of mc ^ 2 additionally. [2] So they now cannot travel at the speed of light. [1]
※If the energy of the interaction between certain particle and Higgs field is strong, the mass of the particle increases. (It will require significant energy to move the particle) [2]
○Higgs field condensed by the time the temperature of the universe fell, then mass and the Higgs boson appeared. [3]
：The birth of mass（ After 10^-9 second The temperature of the universe 10^13K）
※If the Higgs field did not exist, particles would not have the mass required to attract one another, and would float around freely at light speed. [1]
○However, Higgs field is the original of 2% of mass. [4]
※Most of the mass of protons and neutrons is the kinetic energy of elemental particles (quark, antiquark, gluons). [5]
※Energy also has mass according to the principle of mass–energy equivalence.
○There are two types of mass. [6]
1) Difficulty of acceleration → inertial mass ••• by Higgs field
2) Degree of weight due to gravitation → gravitational mass ••• by gravitational field
1) and 2) are equivalent.
※The equality of inertial and active gravitational mass remains as puzzling as ever.
２５－２ Higgs boson
○Higgs boson is the vibration of the Higgs field. : Higgs boson appears when you excite the Higgs field.
・Spin, Electric charge：0 [4]
・Mass：125.3 GeV [4]
※The Standard Model of elementary particles (more schematic depiction), with the three generations of matter, gauge bosons in the fourth column, and the Higgs boson in the fifth.
MissMJ - Own work by uploader, PBS NOVA, Fermilab, Office of Science, United States Department of Energy, Particle Data Group [7]
※ Graviton does not enter into the standard model. Gravity can not be described well with the Standard Model.
○July 04, 2012, Conseil Europeenne pour la Reaherche Nucleaire (CERN, in Switzerland)announced that they discovered a new particle which they could believe it as Higgs boson. [1]
○April 2015 Restart of LHC operation: There is a theory that predicts that there are five types of Higgs particles, so verification of its correctness is a problem.
※LHC：The Large Hadron Collider Iis the world's largest and most powerful particle collider, most complex experimental facility ever built, and the largest single machine in the world. It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) .It lies beneath the France–Switzerland border near Geneva, Switzerland. [8]
【References】
1. Higgs field - Wikipedia
2. ヒッグス粒子と質量の謎（ヒッグス粒子は何をするのか）
http://www.phys.u-ryukyu.ac.jp/~maeno/timeandspace2014/lec14_higgs.html
3. 島根大学集中講義 真空の性質2009
http://osksn2.hep.sci.osaka-u.ac.jp/~naga/kogi/shimane-class09/shimanelec2_vac.pdf
4. Higgs boson - Wikipedia
5. ヒッグス粒子にはできないこと－物理学と切手収集
http://d.hatena.ne.jp/hundun2/20111219/1324367739
6. Mass - Wikipedia
7. Standard Model - Wikipedia
8. Large Hadron Collider - Wikipedia
２５ ヒッグス場とヒッグス粒子 【宇宙とは】宇宙との対話
２５－１ ヒッグス場と質量
○ヒッグス場は宇宙全体に広がるエネルギー場。
○ヒッグス場では、光子・グルーオン・重力子を除く粒子はmc^2のエネルギーを余分に必要とする。[1] その結果、光速で移動できなくなる。[2]
※ある粒子と、ヒッグス場との相互作用のエネルギーが強い場合、その粒子は質量が大きくなる（粒子を移動させるのに大きなエネルギーが必要になる）。[1]
○宇宙の温度が下がるとヒッグス場が凝縮し、質量とヒッグス粒子が現れた。[3]
：質量の誕生 （10^-9秒後 宇宙の温度：10^13K）
※質量がなかったら、素粒子は光速で飛び回るだけで、物質は生まれなかった。
○ただし、ヒッグス場により生じる質量は質量の２％。[4]
：陽子や中性子の質量の大部分は素粒子（クォーク、反クォーク、グルーオン）の運動エネルギー。[5]
※エネルギーは質量とエネルギーの等価性の原理により、質量を持つ。
○質量には２種類ある。[6]
１）加速の与えにくさ→慣性質量 (inertial mass)・・・ヒッグス場による
２）万有引力による重さの度合い→重力質量 (gravitational mass)・・・重力場による
１）と２）は等価。
※なぜ慣性質量と重力質量が同じ値をとるのかという理由は判っていない。
２５－２ ヒッグス粒子
○ヒッグス粒子はヒッグス場の振動。：ヒッグス場を励起するとヒッグス粒子が現れる。
・ヒッグス粒子は電荷とスピンを持たない。[4]
・ヒッグス粒子の質量は125.3 GeV。[4]
※標準模型 [7]
※グラビトン（重力子）は標準模型の中には入らない。標準模型では重力はうまく記述できない。
○2012年７月４日 欧州合同原子核研究所（ＣＥＲＮ、スイス）は、ヒッグス粒子と見られる新粒子を発見したと発表した。[4]
○2015年４月 LHC運転再開： ヒッグス粒子が5種類あると予言する理論もあるので、その正否の検証が課題になる。
※LHC：大型ハドロン衝突型加速器Large Hadron Collider) 高エネルギー物理実験を目的としてCERNが建設した世界最大の衝突型円型加速器。スイス・ジュネーブ郊外にフランスとの国境をまたいで設置されている。
【参 照】
1.ヒッグス粒子と質量の謎（ヒッグス粒子は何をするのか）
http://www.phys.u-ryukyu.ac.jp/~maeno/timeandspace2014/lec14_higgs.html
2. Higgs field - Wikipedia
3.島根大学集中講義 真空の性質2009
http://osksn2.hep.sci.osaka-u.ac.jp/~naga/kogi/shimane-class09/shimanelec2_vac.pdf
4. ヒッグス粒子 - Wikipedia
5. ヒッグス粒子にはできないこと－物理学と切手収集
http://d.hatena.ne.jp/hundun2/20111219/1324367739
6. 質量 - Wikipedia
7.CatFalcon“この世界は単純だ”
http://blogs.yahoo.co.jp/cat_falcon/22535344.html
